Love and Marriage during the Era of Mao in Communist China

Table of Contents Introduction Before marriage Marriage Conclusion Works Cited Footnotes Introduction The era of Mao lasted from 1949 to 1976 when Mao Zedong died. It was during this period when China experienced many reforms in most of its institutions especially marriage. Mao led the promulgation of the 1950 Marriage Law on 1st May the same year[1]. The implementation of this law led to many changes in the marriage institution. These changes, according to Mao, brought freedom to women in the Chinese society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Love and Marriage during the Era of Mao in Communist China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Mao believed that the captivity of women in the Chinese society hindered economic development and by implementing this law; women would be free to participate in economic development. Marriage is a very important institution in any society though prior to the Mao era, the people di d not award it much attention and respect. The Mao era brought flexibility in marriage in the Chinese community. The promulgation and the implementation of the 1950 Marriage Law ensured that one man married one wife only. Before marriage During the Mao era, if someone wanted to get married s/he was free to look for a mate of his/her own choice. In the pre-communist period, this was an abomination since parents chose the mates for their sons/daughters. It allowed the breaking of barriers that the pre-communist community upheld regarding marriage. Some of these barriers were social classes in that, people from the wealthy families could not freely interact with leave alone marry, the poor people. However, there were age limits in that the minimum age of the man was seventeen years while that of the woman fifteen to qualify for marriage[2]. It is important to mention that betrothal was not a prerequisite for marriage and none of the parties would specify compliance to the agreement. Un like in the pre-communist era, marriage presents were not necessary and if present, the parties gave them as donations. In the Mao era, the law did not allow polygamous marriage in the Chinese community and through such, the sale of young females within the society ended. It also the society to improve the attention awarded o the girl child. The society did not give much attention to bride price and dowry as before. However, the bridegroom’s family had to pay some amount of money to the bride’s family. According to the Chinese customs, the bride’s family was to return a portion of the money to the bridegroom’s family as dowry as a sign of goodwill. Marriage On the success of the betrothal, the parties proceeded to marriage. An open wedding ceremony marked the union of the two parties in marriage. The wedding ceremony followed the traditional Chinese procedure. The bridegroom picked up the bride from her home where he respectfully greeted her parents. The two then proceeded to the bridegroom’s home for the bride to greet her in-laws. The two parties greeted the parents with a cup of tea and in return, daughter(s) in-law received some money inside a red packet.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Just like any other form of wedding, this ceremony required witnesses as the two were officially getting married. In some parts of China, the parties were not supposed to finish the fish served to them. They were not to touch the head, tail and the whole skeleton of the fish. By doing so, they symbolised a good start and end of their marriage. Once married, the wife and the husband would stay in the husband’s home. The statutory scheme provided for a number of arrangements regarding matrimonial property. However, the husband had the right to manage the property and enjoy the fruits of the wife’s contribution to matrimonial property . Dissolution of marriage could occur through death or divorce. In the pre-communist era, the husband was the only one with the right of initiating a divorce. It was not the case during the Mao’s reign where divorce could only occur through mutual consent of the parties involved. The legal formality of divorce was a written document signed by two witnesses. The judiciary allowed divorce under several circumstances[3] including bigamy, adultery, ill-treatment of one of the parties by the other, in case one of them suffers a malignant disease or a mental disease, and continual desertion of bad faith. Divorce could also occur if one party was uncertain of the existence of the other for three years or when the other party served a jail term for more than three years. When divorce occurred, the children remained in the custody of the husband, unless otherwise stated in the agreement. Conclusion During the Mao era, the Chinese community experienced many changes as far as marriage i s concerned. It was in Mao’s attempts to free women from male captivity to enhance their productivity. Planned marriages ended allowing people free to make their choices when it came to choosing spouses. Women were also empowered to make major decisions in the marriage institution. It brought a sigh of relief to the young females from humble backgrounds whose families hitherto sold them as concubines to rich men in the society. Works Cited Chang, Jung, and Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Love and Marriage during the Era of Mao in Communist China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Footnotes Chang, Jung, and Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. 145. Chang and Halliday, 143. Chang and Halliday,139 This essay on Love and Marriage during the Era of Mao in Communist China was written and submitted by user Keat0n to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

buy custom Jazz Music essay

buy custom Jazz Music essay Jazz is one of the musical that was developed by African Americans and impacted by the harmonic structure of the whites. In most cases, Jazz is marked by the utilization of intonation and blues speeches. There is no specific date that one can account as the day for emergence of Jazz. Research indicate that in the 1840s, there was use of plantation brass accompanied by this kind of music. In fact, the earliest Jazz are said to have been developed in New Orleans which is a city that has mixed cultural tradition and race. Jazz continued to evolve in the days. Most of its composers were thrust into the public sphere. In fact, it became an anthem for the back members of the society. The following paper discusses the effect of Jazz on the black community. Jazz music was an opportunity for expression of the black Americans. In essence, many blacks had faced discrimination in the United States. They were taken in as slaves. The freed slaves, however, did not get similar treatment to the whites. They would work hard for minimal labor. Moreover, they had to use social amenities that were of low standards compared to those of the white. The evolution of the jazz music was thus significant to their exisence. It is because it gave them room to voice their anger, fear and frustration that they did face in their daily life. It is vital to note that Jazz developed from most of the Afro-American music. Moreover, it led to the opening of the discussions regarding segregation and racism based on institution that had characterized the setting. For instance, if Jazz was sung in a public zone, people would unintentionally get into discussion regarding the problem of discrimination. Jazz music thus brought psychological relief to the black Jazz music created a sense of integration among the blacks (Baskerville 44). Every person needs a sense of belonging. In fact, there is no person who would live to exist as an island. The black Americans were not an exception. They were in foreign land. Moreover, they were undergoing different kinds of suffering. Jazz music thus gave them a form of identity and belonging. They developed a feeling of integration towards each other. They would attend such joints and relieve themselves by singing to the popular tunes. In fact, the evolution of Jazz music gave room for many black Americans to find hope amidst social difficulties. They would enjoy social mobility. They would identify with the struggless that each person was encountering. Consequently, it helped them persevere. Research shows that despite the differences, jazz community remained integrated. Jazz music escalated the victimization of the blacks. It is a negative impact of the evolution of jazz. Jazz music gave room to the exploitation and discrimination of the blacks (Baskerville 67). It is evident in how Jazz musicians would be treated. The whites remained in total control of the music industry. The black musicians would be exploited unto death. The whites also through the music developed a clear perception that blacks were inferior to them. Consequently, they continued esteeming their perception. In fact, it seemed as though their actions were justified. However, the ultimate win for jazz was that in the long run, they became recognized. The blacks gained their full identity. They had a passion and a way of life that the rest of the society sought to protect. The discussion reveals that Jazz played a fundamental role in the life of the Black Americans. It was their voice to express their pain and suffering. Jazz gave them a sense of belonging. However, it negatively impacted that by enhancing their victimization. Buy custom Jazz Music essay

Caste System as a Form of Social Stratification

Caste System as a Form of Social Stratification The caste system is one of the oldest forms of social stratification and even though it may be prohibited by the law, the political divisions continue to exist in the minds of the people leaving many oppressed. Before the caste system, India had four groups or divisions already established: the Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and Dravidian. It was during the Aryan invasion around 1500 BCE when the caste system was created. The word  caste  derives from  the Portuguese  word casta  , meaning breed, race, or kind. In this system, the citizens are divided into categories or castes. Varna, the Sanskrit word for color, refers to large divisions that include various castes; the other terms include castes and subdivisions of castes sometimes called subcastes. Among the Indian terms that are sometimes translated as caste are jati, jat,  biradri, and  samaj. There are thousands of castes and subcastes in India. It follows a basic precept: All m en are created unequal. Each category or jat has a special role to play in the society as well as a unique function: this structure is a means of creating and organizing an effective society. The caste system in India is primarily associated with Hinduism but also exists among other Indian religious groups. Castes are ranked and named. Membership is achieved by birth. Castes are also endogamous groups. Marriages and relationships between members of different castes, while not actually prohibited, face strong social disapproval and the threat of ostracism or even violence. To illustrate, in a notorious case in August 2001, a Brahmin boy and a lower-caste girl were publicly hanged by members of their families in Uttar Pradesh, India for refusing to end their inter-caste relationship.   [ 1 ]    The first of the four basic Vedic books, which are considered the source of Indian wisdom, is the Rig Veda- a collection of over 1,000 hymns containing the basic mythology of the Aryan gods . The Rig Veda contains one of the most famous sections in ancient Indian literature in which the first man created, Purusa, is sacrificed in order to give rise to the four varnas. The varna of Brahmans emerged from the mouth. They are the priests and teachers, and look after the intellectual and spiritual needs of the community. They preside over knowledge and education. The varna of Kshatriyas emerged from the arms. Their responsibility is to rule and to protect members of the community. They are associated with rulers and warriors including property owners. The varna of Vaishyas emerged from the thighs. They are the merchants and traders and those who look after commerce and agriculture. The varna of Sudras emerged from the feet. They are the laborers. Castes or subcastes besides the four mentioned include such groups as the  Bhumihar  or landowners and the  Kayastha  or scribes. Some castes arose from very specific occupations, such as the  Gar udi  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ snake charmers – or the  Sonjhari, who collected gold from river beds. Each caste is believed by devout Hindus to have its own dharma, or divinely ordained code of proper conduct. Brahmans are usually expected to be nonviolent and spiritual, according to their traditional roles as vegetarian teetotaler priests. Kshatriyas are supposed to be strong, as fighters and rulers should be, with a taste for aggression, eating meat, and drinking alcohol. Vaishyas are stereotyped as adept businessmen, in accord with their traditional activities in commerce. Shudras are often described by others as tolerably pleasant.

Methods Used For Magnesium Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Methods Used For Magnesium - Essay Example Magnesium is an alkaline earth metal, belongs to the second group of s-block of the periodic table and is on the left side of the table. Magnesium is represented by â€Å"Mg† and has an atomic number of 12. The atomic weight of magnesium is 24.3050(6) and atomic volume of 14.0 cm3/mol. The electronic configuration is s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. Generally exhibits Hexagonal Close-packed lattice structure. The lattice dimensions of Magnesium at 25?C are Side length=0.32092 nm Height=0.52105 nm. At room temperature, actual c/a ratio reaches 1.6236 where magnesium becomes almost closely packed (Magnesium, 2000). It contains two electrons in the outer shell and being loses them in order to form a positive ion in the closed shell such as Mg+2. The energy level of magnesium is 3 as First energy level 2 Second energy level 8 Third energy level 2 Figure 1: Electronic configuration of magnesium Magnesium is silvery white or greyish, lightweight and strong metal. It is highly flammable metal and tar nished when in contact with air; therefore, it develops a thin layer of oxide. Magnesium is abundantly present in both earth crust and seawater due to its high solubility. However, magnesium is not present as free metal because of its reactive property (Gupta & Sharon, 2011). Magnesium has density of 1.738 g.cm-3 at 20?C. The melting point of Mg is 650?C and its boiling point is 1107?C. It has a heat of fusion of 8.48 kJ ·mol?1 and its heat of vaporization is 128 kJ ·mol?1, whilst its molar heat capacity is 24.869 J ·mol?1 ·K?1. Magnesium is a strongly basic oxidant. Other atomic properties of Mg include its electronegativity of 1.31 (Pauling Scale), the atomic radius of 160 pm, and covalent radius of 141 ±7 pm (Magnesium Facts, 2012). Moreover, magnesium is paramagnetic is nature and its other mechanical properties include Young’s Modulus of 45GPa, Shear Modulus of 17GPa and Bulk Modulus of 45GPa. The hardness value of Magnesium is 260MPa based on Brinell Scale. Th e oxidation number of magnesium is +2 and is been found in a number of compounds. Magnesium Oxide, also called magnesia, is the second most abundant metallic oxide in the earth after Aluminium Oxide. Other forms of magnesium in the compound state include hydrated magnesium sulfate (MgSO4.7H2O), also called Epsom Salt. Magnesium compounds also include Magnesium Carbonate and Magnesium Fluoride (Willett, 2007). Dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are the main commercial sources of magnesium. Due to the presence of Mg+2 ions, seawater is considered another major source of magnesium. Magnesium hydroxide precipitates can be formed by adding calcium hydroxide in seawater for obtaining magnesium (Avedesian & Baker, 1999). MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 > Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 Brucite is insoluble in water and can be transformed into magnesium chloride when reacts with hydrochloric acid. Magnesium, then, can be extracted from magnesium chloride by the electrolysis process. Mg (OH)2 + 2 H Cl > MgCl2 + 2 H2O In electrolysis process, Mg+2 ion is transformed into magnesium metal by adding two electrons at the cathode while chlorine ions are oxidized to chlorine gas by releasing two electrons at the anode. Mg2+ + 2 e- > Mg (Cathode Reaction) 2 Cl? > Cl2 (g) + 2 e- (Anode Reaction) Magnesium has three isotopes (e.g. 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg) available in significant amounts with 24Mg comprising 79% of total magnesium. 28Mg is radioactive in nature; however, its usage in the nuclear industry has been limited due to its short life (21 hours).  

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT - Assignment Example Summary and conclusions 18 References & Appendices Abstract The present report explores operations management at a production and service organisations with an aim to understand its main constituents and approaches; in addition, an understanding of the differences between strategic approaches of production and service operations management has been obtained. To achieve this, firstly, the report explores corporate and operations strategies as well as competitive priorities of Toyota and Accenture. Practical implications along with critical perspectives of core operational processes like capacity planning inventory management, quality, supply chain management and performance management at both organisations have been explored. Lastly, implications of these processes at operations and strategic levels have been illustrated based on competitiveness, sustainability and innovation perspectives. 1. Introduction Operations management is concerned with managing the process of creating product s and services through systematic and defined procedures. On a broader level, different functions involved in operations management of production and service industry are almost same; but the way these functions are carried are very different. In order to understand the difference, the current discourse evaluates operations management processes in two distinct organisations, i.e. the automotive manufacturer Toyota and the management and technology service provider, Accenture. Their immense success and global presence have been possible because of sustainable operations besides other activities. This report attempts to highlight the core operational activities carried out at both the organisations and how these activities have added value to their successes. In this process, competitive priorities and critical operational strategies such as capacity planning, inventory management, supply chain management, performance management, and quality approaches have been assessed. These aspect s will clarify how these organisations attained competitive position in their respective markets; and what factors have lead to their immense success despite the external and internal challenges. 1.1 Operations management: Brown (2000) describes that Operations Management involves the most critical activities of production, beginning from and including, planning and design, production processes of goods and services, and also effective integration of marketing, finance, human resources management and strategy in order to enable a business to enter and compete with both new and existing markets. In other words, a business’s success and sustainability largely depend on the operational capabilities, including efficiency and quality. These factors have been mastered by both the organisations to a large extent. Theoretically, operations management in manufacturing and service industries constitute a combination of three distinct functions, strategic functions, tactical functions a nd operational planning and control functions (Chase, 2006). Main operational processes include planning, production, purchasing or inventory management, supply chain management, distribution and marketing. Toyota and Accenture perform these processes distinctly as aligned with different competitive prior

Glucose Improves Listening Span Essay Example for Free

Glucose Improves Listening Span Essay This study was conducted to see the consequences for listening comprehension by examining the effects of a glucose drink on performance. The researchers predicted a hypothesis. The hypothesis being that listening span will be sensitive to glucose consumption. Students who fasted overnight would improve after drinking a glucose drink, where the placebo drink would not improve performance after fasting. The hypothesis was supported. There was an alternate/ research hypothesis used in this study. The independent variable was the glucose and the placebo that was being used in the study. It also shows that there was a difference between the two groups being tested. The numbers show that the glucose level was higher when real sugar drinks were being used. The data was collected by physical measures. They took a convenience sampling of eighty A- level students from two colleges. Within the sample there were 44 males and 36 females. The participants were asked to report to a specific room at 9 a. m. No more than 10 were in each room within a particular college. They were randomly assigned either the glucose or placebo group (they were unaware of any distinction). They were administered a version of the Listening Span Test. The students listened to a series of sentences. Then on a response sheet, they would record whether the preposition in each sentence was true or false. Then the students were required to write down, in forward serial order the last word in each sentence. After completion there was a twenty minute interval. Students were given orange juice to drink. One group got real orange juice; the other was given a placebo drink to emulate orange juice. They were then given a different version of the Listening Span Test. Researchers took ten samples of blood; five from placebo and five from glucose group. There wasn’t a difference in the taste of the beverages that was given to the students, even though one drink had 50 grams of glucose and the placebo contained the 2 grams of sweetex in place of the glucose. There was a clinically trained staff member that handled all of the sampling as well as the disposal of the materials that was being used to conduct the study. The students that took part of this study gave three blood samples before the drinks were consumed, and three more samples of blood was required 20 minutes after the Listening Span Test was given for the second time. They used the experimental method to analyze the data, using the glucose drink and placebo drink as an independent variable compared to the test scores as the dependent variable. The researcher controlled as much as possible to determine the cause and effect relationship exists between the variables being studied. The research design was quantitative due to the data analysis and cannot take place until all data had been collected. The researcher starts with a hypothesis for testing, observes and collected the data, analyzes the data, and drew conclusions. There was a statistical significance found when comparing listening span test score of 2. 4 before the drink to 3. 1 after the drink. In examining the data collected, the corollary effects shown were the scores showed improvement in the glucose group after receiving the drink compared to no performance difference before the drink was consumed. Controlling blood sugar is very important because sugar is used as a fuel, but cannot be stored; it is broken down and released into the blood stream. Every person’s glucose levels are different; this test was done on healthy students that had never been diagnosed with having any problems with high glucose/sugar levels. If it had been done on some people that had been diagnosed with diabetes and some that are in good health, the results would have been much higher. There was a factor that could affect the internal validity of the study. The pancreas could affect blood glucose levels; because when blood sugar drops it releases glycogen from the liver. So after the fasting the body its self would release glycogen into the bloodstream. Therefore they could not present a clear relationship between blood sugar level and cognitive capacity. What we did learn was the brain uses glucose as its fuel. The glucose levels of the students that did participate in the study stayed the same, and the listening span did improve after the consumption of the glucose drink. There was no difference or change in the listening span of the students that had beverages containing saccharine. Fasting also played a role in this study; it helped improve the listening span after the students received drinks that contained real sugar (glucose). The purpose of using the Listening Span Test was to measure the capacity of verbal memory. Sentences were read to the students the longest was six sentences long. This was done to determine how much the students could comprehend in a short period of time. In conclusion the research showed a modest increase in listening span performance after a glucose drink was taken. It was preferable for students to eat a nutritious breakfast but if not the students could consume a convenient form of glucose to elevate blood sugar levels that suggests a relationship between glucose drink and improvement level of performance. This conclusion falls into explanatory use. It meets guidelines such as having a dependent and independent variable, a control group and experimental group. This study showed a clear cause and effect relationship due to the increase in listening span after drinking the glucose. All students were given guidelines to follow before the test was administered and was randomly selected from their local colleges. While the study had merit, the potential threat to the internal validity needs to be addressed. How much did the pancreas contribute to raising the glucose levels in the body?

Johnny Tremain :: essays research papers

Johnny Tremain a young boy grown up as an apprentice during the 1700’s in Boston was an unfortunate but lucky kid. In the next several paragraphs, I will describe interesting parts in the book and also described the Authors factorial & emotional feeling and not to mention my feelings toward the book.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of my favorite parts of the book was when Lyte came in and wanted a silver piece made by Mr. Lampham in which he had made one before, years ago, Mr. Lamphem wasn’t quite sure if he he still had it, so he was thinking of not doing it, but Johnny was so brave and sure only as an apprentice, he offered to do it. To me that really showed how enthustatic and dedicated Johnny was to the silversmith, when he did ask to do it, Mr. Lampham doubted very seriously that Johnny could do such a thing, but he still trys and works on it very hard and time consuming.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another good part of the story is when Johnny is basically crippled with one of his hands, and is basically worth nothing, when at one time Johnny was wanted by a lot of masters because he was very talented with his hands. It really makes you think if you were to lose a talent how you would feel about it and act upon it, it made me feel thankful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another interesting part of the book was when Johnny went to look for a job. Johnny was so persistent when trying to find another apprentice job. He didn’t really care about what kind of job it was he just wanted a job, he went from place to place trying as hard as he could to hid his crippled hand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Johnny started his job with the Sons of Liberty as a news paper route boy it came to be a very interesting section of the book. It was interesting because, he was giving a code to all of the Sons of Liberty members saying â€Å" You owe the Boston herald 6 schilling†, meaning that night there would be a meeting at 6:00 PM that night. He was becoming part of the Sons of Liberty and it was starting to get really good, especially when he started trying to find out when the British attacking , posting at, and grouping at. It was also good when John Adams has him blow a whistle to send the Sons of Liberty to

Insanity Defense Essay

Imagine for a moment, someone has just inexplicably murdered a mother or child. Imagine the rage, tearing you apart, physically making you shake or be ill. At the same time this rage is entangled and somewhat smothered by the crushing grief welling up inside of you. A thought flashes into your head, â€Å"I will kill the person responsible for this!† but our sanity stops that action. A persons insanity allows you to know that to actually carry out a murder is illogical, immoral, and illegal. You know that your actions will land you a spot in hell next to all the other Murders. That thought process is exactly what separates you from a killer. Although with the right lawyer, the person who committed this tragic crime may someday be able to be free. This murderer may be able to push such anguish onto another family because they were let free on grounds of temporary insanity. The insanity defense should be wiped out nationwide unless certain tests of mental insanity are met and a patient has a history of a mental illness. The insanity defense is a criminal defense that is used when the defendant’s case states that the crime occurred because the defendant had a severe mental disease or defect and was unable to apprehend the wrongfulness of his or her acts. When someone claims insanity, they are not held responsible for their criminal actions. There are two pieces of evidence the first being the accused was unable to tell right from wrong and the second that the accused did not intend to act the way he or she did and/or could not control their behavior. The insanity defense should not be a valid excuse to free criminals. Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one, and experts disagree whether it has valid psychological meaning. Critics of not guilty by reason of insanity have claimed that too many sane defendants use the insanity defense to escape justice; that the state of psychological knowledge encourages expensive â€Å"dueling expert† contests that juries are unlikely to understand; that, in practice, the defense unfairly excludes some defendants. Research on not guilty by reason of insanity fails to support most of these claims but some serious problems may exist with this. The insanity defense goes back to 1843 when a man by the name of Daniel McNaughtan attempted to assassinate Edward Drummond, Secretary to the  British Prime Minister Robert Peel. McNaughtan was under the impression that he was being prosecuted, so he reacted with murder. Daniel McNaughtan killed Robert Peel’s secretary. He was found not guilty by reason of insanity. Following his trial, he spent the next twenty years in a mental asylum until his death. Soon after this case, the English House of Lords set standards for the insanity defense which they called McNaugtan’s Rule: â€Å"Every man is to be presumed to be sane, and†¦that to establish a defense on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, from disease of mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wro ng.† (Encyclopedia Of Everyday Law) Soon after this rule became legal, the United States criminal justice system adopted this precedent. In 1981, after the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley, the insanity defense received a lot of harsh publish criticism. John Hickley was found not guilty by reason of insanity. Various people argued that Hinckley was guilty because the premeditation of the crime committed proved him to be sane, therefore the insanity defense should not have proved him not guilty. Hickley was found not guilty by reason of insanity and remains in psyciatic care. This allows the mentally ill defendant to be found liable of his or her crime, but requires them to seek psychiatric treatment or be placed in a mental hospital. When the defendants are well enough, they are moved to a prison to serve their sentences. Because of cases like this, the insanity defense still undergoes a lot of public criticism today. Although, during a more recent trial of Jeffrey Dahmer, who mutilated and consumed his young victims, the defendant tried to use the insanity defense, but the jurors found the criminal both sane and guilty. This case showed that the insanity defense does not work for all criminals and supported the public’s criticism of the insanity defense. In another famous case, the Unabomber case, defendant Kaczynski refused to allow his attorney to present an insanity defense, and instead pled guilty and was sentenced to a life in prison. Had he let his attorney go through with the temporary insanity plea, there is a good chance that Kaczynski would be a free man today and could potentially kill again. The insanity defense does not eliminate the responsibility of a criminal act from the  person committing the crime; instead, it is a defense mechanism for criminals who argue that at the time of the crime the defendant did not have willful intent due to a severe mental defect or disease. As stated before, numerous people are opposed to the insanity defense. They are against the insanity defense because they see it as a means where the defendant can avoid the consequences of his or her action s. People fear violent crimes and will be more apt to prosecute a criminal versus allowing the criminal another chance. The public, as they should be, is shocked when a criminal is successful in pleading insanity, is sent to a mental institution, and then is released once deemed â€Å"cured† by a team of physicians. The public does not see this as punishment, because it is not. A short stint in a mental institution is nothing compared to serving hard time. Some studies suggest that prison time is ineffectual, that may be but isolating violent criminals is a public safety matter. If left to their own devices, there is a very real possibility that they may strike again. The temporary insanity plea is almost always used in cases of extreme mutilation, murder, and other horrific crimes, yet after undergoing a physiological evaluation some of the most vile people earth are allowed to walk free. Incomprehensibly, the very people who most deserve to be locked up for life are the ones who most often get off by claiming temporary insanity. Due to the violent nature of there crimes it is not a stretch to claim that they were insane. The vast majority of violent criminals are repeat offenders, and that affects every taxpayer in the United States, because it costs tens of thousands of dollars just to run a criminal through the justice system, not to mention the cost of providing care for them afterward. Once a person has proven they have the capacity to commit such an offence, they have proven that they are not fit to enjoy the freedoms that we as Americans are entitled. The insanity defense is an excuse for criminals to break the law and have no bearing on p unishments. In most criminal cases the insanity plea is just a defense strategy aimed at delivering guilty defendants from serving time in prison or getting the death penalty. Most defendants that are found guilty by reason of insanity are released from the mental hospital years if not decades earlier than they would have been if they served their regular prison sentence. The insanity defense allows criminals to avoid the punishments they should be receiving for the crime they committed. When  someone is found not guilty by reason of insanity, jurisdictions require that the person spend at least some time in a psychiatric facility; if not automatically, many states require commitment to a psychiatric facility on grounds of mental illness, dangerousness, or both; most states do not have a limit on the amount of time that someone can be institutionalized insane. How long they spend in an institution also varies by state, but on average most stay three and a half years; in New Jersey 35% of the sample were still in institutions 8 years later; in Michigan it was 9 1/2 months; in Illinois it was 17 1/2 months, however, in this sample over 70% had been found incompetent prior to trial and had spent an average of 38.4 months in institutions. (Washington Post)= In the early 1990’s involving eight different states a study was conducted. They found that less than one percent of criminal defendants used the insanity defense. Only a quarter of these resulted in successf ul acquittals. Today a number of states have replaced the option of pleading â€Å"not guilty by reason of insanity† with pleading â€Å"guilty but mentally ill†. Currently, Idaho, Montana, and Utah banned insanity defenses, along with the supreme courts ruling. Along with this, between sixty and seventy percent of cases in which the insanity plea is invoked are for crimes other then murder. In actuality, it is used approximately 0.9% of the time. There are 51 different types of insanity defenses in the United States, one for each set of state laws, and one for federal law when dealing with someone pleading not guilty by reason of insanity. With astronomical operating costs of a psychiatric facility that increase the tax burden on every tax payer in the nation, especially the maximum security facilities that this caliber of criminal is housed at, the temporary insanity precedent set forth over a century ago should be phased out. Unfortunately, murder and violent crime has and will continue to happen as long as there are human beings living in close proximity, it is and ugly and regrettable reality of human society. There is no real solution to this horrible truth, but the closest and most logical option to preventing the deaths of more innocent people is for temporary insanity regulations to become much more strict. This will inevitably save lives, for if just one murderer has a second opportunity to kill another person that is one more person that is needlessly killed because the killer was given a second chance and not put in prison the first time they proved they have the  capacity to take a life. Works Cited â€Å"Insanity Defense†. The Lectric Law Library’s Lexicon. 2 February, 2009. 12 February, 2009.http://www.lectlaw.com/def/d029.html Martin, John P. â€Å"The Insanity Defense: A closer look†Ã¢â‚¬ . Washington Post. 27 February, 1998. WP. 24 February, 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/local/longterm/aron/qa227.html â€Å"Other U.S. News: AMA Opposes Insanity Plea.† Facts On File World News Digest 23 Dec. 1983. World News Digest. Facts On File News Services. 23 Feb. 2009. â€Å"Supreme Court: Arizona Insanity Defense Law Upheld.† Facts On File World News Digest 29 June 2006. World News Digest. Facts On File News Services. 23 Feb. 2009.

Issues facing women in prisons Essay

The issues of women in prison are clouded with amazing stereotypes and silence. Women are the fastest growing sector of the prison population in the United States. Even more than men, most women are incarcerated for non-violent offenses. These women are often products of sexist and racist attitudes, and do not have marketable job skills. Economic survival for herself and her family often means prostitution, forging, petty theft or some kind of hustle. Once incarcerated, women have less access to education, job training programs, and other services than men. When released, women are more often shamed for having done time, and less likely to reach out for support. In the 1970s, two women sociologists, Rita Simon and Freda Adler, argued that the extent and nature of women’s criminality appeared to be changing. They predicted that women’s criminal behavior would continue to undergo dramatic changes until it closely resembled men’s. The increase in the frequency and seriousness of female criminality, they believed, would come in crimes traditionally associated with men. Women’s new emancipation and assertiveness, women’s expanded economic opportunities, women’s new social roles, would lead to their more frequent and serious criminality (McClellan). Many of the largest increases for serious offenses are found in traditionally female crimes such as fraud, forgery, larceny/theft, and drug violations. Most of the increases in female property crime involve petty, unsophisticated offenses, e. g. , shoplifting, misuse of credit cards, passing bad checks, and welfare fraud–crimes related to the increasing feminization of poverty. The majority of women continue to be arrested for victimless crimes: for being drug addicts, for being intoxicated, for being prostitutes. Only 14 percent of those arrested for violent offenses are women. This rate has remained stable over time. Three out of four women arrested for violent offenses have committed simple assault. Women constitute approximately one-tenth of the arrests for robbery, and one-tenth of the arrests for murder and non-negligent manslaughter. Changes in women’s criminal behavior, like changes in women’s social roles, have been slow and predictable (Corrections Statistics). Currently over 95,000 women are incarcerated in U. S. prisons, another 70,000 in our jails. The women’s prison population in the U. S. has quadrupled since 1980, largely a result of a war on drugs that has translated into a war on women and the poor generally. African-American women have been hardest hit by this increase. They are 14. 5 percent of the women in the U. S. population, but they constitute 52. 2 percent of the women in prison (Corrections Statistics). Poor young women of color, most of whom are mothers, are locked in old overcrowded prisons, serving lengthy sentences for drug offenses and petty property crimes. Incarceration for women in the United States has come to mean enduring endless hours of boredom and idleness as women are systematically denied access to meaningful programs; months and years without visits from their children whose guardians cannot afford travel expenses; indignities, disrespect, and infantilization from the correctional staff. Women in prison are subject to an official system that carries the norm-enforcing patriarchal pattern of social control to absurd lengths. As night follows day, omnipresent surveillance elicits the behavior it is installed to control. Faced with implacable patriarchal authority, a female inmate’s seemingly irrational oppositional behavior becomes a means for re-establishing her nature, for resisting the alienation experienced when she is denied traditional expression of both her personal individuality and her collective responsibilities. Intensive surveillance of female inmates is an historical vestige in institutions of correction; it reflects the belief that women should conform to gender-based stereotypes stressing obedience, dependence, and deference. California has the highest population of female prisoners among U. S. states. Since mandatory-sentencing laws went into effect in the mid 1980’s, the California female prison population has skyrocketed. At the end of 1986, women in California’s prisons totaled 3,564. As of September 2000, the female population now numbers 11,091 – an increase of 311% in fourteen years (CDC Data). The vast majority of women sentenced under California’s two-strikes and three-strikes laws are for nonviolent crimes, particularly drug offenses. A 1999 study of women in the California prison system found that 71% of incarcerated women had experienced ongoing physical abuse prior to the age of 18 and that 62% experienced ongoing physical abuse after 18 years of age. The report also found that 41% of women incarcerated in California had experienced sexual abuse prior to the age of 18 and 41% experienced sexual abuse after 18 years of age. Such a background further inhibits the ability of female inmates to report or seek recourse in cases of abuse within the prison system. (Bloom, Owen) Prisons for women in California are on average 171% over their designed capacity, with two prisons almost 200% over capacity. The Federal women’s prison in Dublin is more than 128% over capacity (CDC Report). Valley State Penitentiary for Women (VSPW) and the adjacent Central California Women’s Facility (CCWF) together house almost 7,000 incarcerated women and is probably the largest women’s prison complex in the world. (AI Report) Women in California state prisons make only pennies an hour. Females incarcerated in federal prisons make a minimum of $5. 75 per month. Though inmates from the United States can sometimes make more money through Federal work programs, non-nationals are not permitted to make more than the base monthly amount. In California state prisons, women earn as little as $. 05 per hour. In the California prison system, visitation is a privilege not a right. Prisoners on death row and prisons in California serving life sentences without parole cannot receive unsupervised family visits. Family visits are also not permitted with common law relationships. Pregnant women in prison face unique problems. Stress, environmental and legal restrictions, unhealthy behavior, and weakened or nonexistent social support systems—all common among female inmates—have an even greater effect on pregnant inmates. Women in prison are placed outside the normal mothering experience in such ways (Huft et al): †¢ Stress — incarcerated women experience higher than normal levels of stress. They have a higher incidence of complications during pregnancy, labor, and delivery. †¢ Restricted environment — adaptation to pregnancy is limited by the prison environment. Mandatory work, structured meal times, and lack of environ-mental stimulation may decrease the likelihood of individualized prenatal care. For instance, pregnant inmates receive standard clothing that often does not fit well. Alternatives for special clothing (e. g. , stockings and shoes) may be dictated by availability within the institution or by what family and friends are willing to supply. In addition, disciplinary action or other restrictions may interfere with the offender’s adaptation to pregnancy. †¢ Altered social support systems — even if ideal opportunities for nutritional education and physical development are available during pregnancy, pregnant women will not take advantage of them if they do not receive support from their inmate peer groups. Limited health care facilities or staff sometimes warrants the immediate transfer of a pregnant inmate to a civilian hospital at the onset of labor. †¢ Altered maternal roles—Maternal identity depends on rehearsal for the anticipated role after birth. Women in Federal prisons do not directly care for their infants after birth. Developing a maternal role therefore depends upon plans for placing the infant after birth. The inmate can place the infant either for adoption or for guardianship. Preparation for care includes teaching the mother decision-making skills. Counseling should emphasize developing an identity during pregnancy and strategies for coping with the loss of the infant. After the birth, the mother will need counseling in making or accepting the decision to place the infant for adoption or temporary guardianship. One of the major concerns of women in prison is their children. A large percentage of women in our criminal justice system are mothers. According to Amnesty International, 78% of women in state prisons are mothers (Impact on Children, 1999). Because there are fewer women in prison than men, there are fewer women’s facilities throughout the country. As a result, women are placed in prisons located miles away from their children and families (Chesney-Lind, 1998). Consequently, children spend less time visiting their mothers in these facilities. For children who resided in the same home as their mother prior to her incarceration, this is an extremely traumatic experience. Children whose parents are incarcerated are often placed in the care of other family members, in foster care or in juvenile homes. â€Å"Nationwide, 50% of the children in the juvenile justice system have a parent in prison† (Impact on Children, 1999). Very few children will go live with their father and the majority of children, approximately 60%, are taken in and cared for by their grandmothers. However, many of these grandmothers are financially unstable and do not have the means to support and satisfy all the needs of these children. As if this is not traumatic enough, children of incarcerated mothers face many other hardships. Along with being removed from the home they grew up in and their families, children face other unfamiliar challenges such as attending new schools and living in new homes in alien settings. These children may demonstrate a variety of emotional and psychological responses such as â€Å"hyperactivity, attention deficits, delinquency, and teenage pregnancy, withdrawal from social relationships or retreat in to denial† along with difficulty with intimacy and assertiveness, lack of trust in others, and poor academic performance. (Impact on Children, 1999). The vast majority of female prisoners in the United States are held in women-only facilities. About one-fifth of all female inmates are housed in co-ed facilities — that is, prisons that accommodate both male and female offenders. Interaction between male and female inmates at coed prisons is minimal and men and women share only certain vocational, technical, or educational resources and recreational facilities. Female inmates are housed in units that are entirely separate from units for male inmates during evening hours (Encarta). The coed facilities present less problems than one would expect, a phenomenon attributed to the â€Å"softening† effect women have on male inmates. The living conditions at a women’s prison are somewhat more pleasant, but there is often a shortage of programs. Women’s prisons are usually less security-conscious. Neither the inmate code nor the hidden economy is well developed. Rather than form gangs, women tend to create pseudofamilies, in which they adopt various family roles — father, mother, daughter, sister — in a type of half serious, half play-acting set of relationships. Some of these roles, but not all of them, involve homosexual relationships. In conclusion, I think that these issues of women in the criminal system should be brought to more awareness to let the public know of these problems and maybe it will help women and young women to get off that track of crime so they don’t end up like all of these other women in these prisons. Bibliography: Corrections Statistics. U. S. Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics Website, 2004 Chesney-Lind, M. Women in Prison: From Partial Justice to Vengeful Equity. Corrections Today, vol. 60, no. 7, 1998. â€Å"Impact on Children of Women in Prison†. Amnesty International Website, 2004 â€Å"Californian Prisons: Failure to protect prisoners from abuse† Amnesty International Issue AMR 51/79/00. 24 May, 2000 California Department of Corrections Data. California Statistical Abstract, 12/1999. McClellan, Dorothy S. â€Å"Coming to the aid of women in U. S. prisons,† Monthly Review, June, 2002. Huft, Anita G. , Fawkes, Lena. and Lawson, Travis. â€Å"Care of the Pregnant Offender† Federal Prisons Journal, Spring 1992. â€Å"Prison,† Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004 Owen, Barbara, and Barbara Bloom. Profiling the needs of the California youth authority’s female population. ICPSR version. Fresno, CA: California State University, 1997.

Heritage and Production of Archaeological Data The WritePass Journal

Heritage and Production of Archaeological Data WRITEPASS CUSTOM ESSAY WRITING EXAMPLE ESSAY Heritage and Production of Archaeological Data ; Gibbon, 2014; Jones, 2002). Case studies on heritage and production of archaeological data A case study that may be cited in this paper is the Lodenice project in central Bohemia in the early 1990s, which is also known for a Viereckschanze (rectangular enclosure) excavation. This project identified an Iron Age settlement and remnants of decorative arm rings dating from 2nd to first centuries BC. This project, which produced a Celtic carved rag stone head, used an analytical fieldwork survey and multivariate mathematical analysis, combined with geographical information system (GIS) (Hicks et al., 2007). This example demonstrates the extent to which the production of archaeological data aims to be as objective as possible, for the archaeologies may simply assume the nature of data collected, but lack of definite measurements and other objective applications would place the whole investigation into mere assumptions. Another case that may be cited is the Bylany Project in Norway (1990s). Grants were used to finance archaeological research, enabling the excavation of Neolithic circular enclosures of Bylanys complex. The integration of National Heritage Institute with rescue excavation administration has been a pending situation, which can negatively impact long-term archeological research in the Kutna Hora region. This archeological research is currently on systematic monitoring (Biehl and Prescott, 2013). The production of archaeological data informs of their use for future research and knowledge production as well as their objective and systematic production, reinforcing the idea that these data are always objective. Moreover in England, a data standard for the Sites and Monuments Records (SMRs) was established in the 1990s, facilitated by what is now known as the English Heritage’s National Monument Record. This data standard acknowledged the importance of records, including the activities of people involved in studying the resource, the sources of such information, and information on the process of managing the resource. This is to enable the successful management of the archaeological and historic environment within which archaeological data are derived (Barrett, Dingwall, Gaffney, et al., 2007). This manner of record-keeping for the production of archaeological data reveals the importance of objectivity. Worthy of discussion is the Tsodillo rock art in Botswana, which was the focus of intensive survey programme and recording by the Botswana National Museum during the late 20th century. The rock art holds the archaeological evidence that human settlement once existed in the landscape (Hicks et al., 2007). The recording and survey carried out by the Museum indicate the pursuit for objectivity in the investigation of the Tsodillo landscape. These case studies discuss what heritage demonstrates about the production of archaeological data being systematically acquired and processed, and thus entail the collaboration of specific government organisations in charge of heritage and archaeological data management. Thus, despite the perceived artistry of heritage, it is largely governed by some objectivity and system-specific characteristics in the production of archaeological data. Conclusion This critical analysis essay has discussed what heritage demonstrates about the production of archaeological data. It has focused on whether the production of archaeological data is always objective, illustrating the answer through cases studies. This brief claims that such production is indeed always objective, as reinforced by the extant literature denoting such objectivity and systematic stances. These data must necessarily be consistent in order for them to be of viable use in the future; hence, subjectivity has no room in their production. Moreover, archaeological data are material, enabling them to become inherently knowable and controllable and are thus definable, discoverable, recordable, manageable, and conservable. Case studies are provided, aiming to serve as evidence for the objectivity of the production of archaeological data. References Barrett, G., Dingwall, L., Gaffney, V., Fitch, S., Huckerby, C., and Maguire, T. (2007) Heritage Management at Ford Hood, Texas: Experiments in Historic Landscape Characterisation. England: Archaeopress. Biehl, P. F. and Prescott, C. (2013) Heritage in the Context of Globalization: Europe and the Americas. NY: Springer. Binfold, L. R. (2009) Debating Archaeology: Updated Edition. CA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Cobb, H., Harris, O. J. T., Jones, C., and Richardson, P. (2012) Reconsidering Archaeological Fieldwork: Exploring On-Site Relationships Between Theory and Practice. NY: Springer. Ferrari, A. (2010) The 8th Framework Programme of the European Commission and the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage: The EACH Project.   Italy: CNR, Institute of Chemical Methodologies. Gibbon, G. (2014) Critically Reading the Theory and Methods of Archaeology: An Introductory Guide. Maryland: AltaMira Press. Habu, J., Fawcett, C., and Matsunaga, J. M. (2008) Evaluating Multiple Narratives: Beyond Nationalist, Colonialist, Imperialist Archaeologies. NY: Springer. Hicks, D., McAtackney, L., and Fairclough, J. (2007) Envisioning Landscape: Situations and Standpoints in Archaeology and Heritage. CA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Hodder, I. (2004) Theory and Practice in Archaeology. NY: Routledge. Jones, A. (2002) Archaeological Theory and Scientific Practice. UK: Cambridge University Press. Robertson, E. C., Seibert, J. D., Fernandez, D. C., and Zender, M. U. (2006) Space and Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Alberta: University of Calgary Press. Smith, L. (2004) Archaeological Theory and the Politics of Cultural Heritage. London: Routledge. Waterton, E. and Smith, L. (2009) Heritage, Communities and Archaeology. London: Bloomsbury Academic.

Critically discuss how one method in Media and Cultural Studies Essay

Critically discuss how one method in Media and Cultural Studies presented in term 2 of the module has been applied to an aspect of everyday life - Essay Example In terms of media-oriented cultural studies, and with the onslaught of various media brought about by post-globalization, ethnography have developed several methods that have departed itself from the traditional concept of qualitative research to a more reflexive approach that is more dependent in terms of interpretations, analysis, and assumptions of the researcher (Barker, p. 32-33). This paper is aimed at studying the application of various ethnographic methods through up-to-date, relevant examples of its usage and provides an analysis of each of the methods’ strengths and weaknesses. A classic ethnographic method that has undergone a postmodern approach is participant observation. Traditionally, participant observation involves empirical field work through participation in the day-to-day activities of the object of study with informal interviews towards better understanding of the meaning and reasoning behind the activities being performed. The time frame of study varies but has steadily declined over the years due to the cost and complexity of the method (as cited in Pickering, p. 107-108). With the proliferation of mass media such as television and internet, participant observations have become part of a pop cultural phenomenon not only dedicated in educating people about various cultures of isolated ethnic groups but creating a spectacle out of it. Take for instance National Geographic Channel’s Meet the Natives UK (2007) and Discovery Channel’s Adventures of Mark and Olly: Living with the Kombai (2007). Both television programs are aimed at documenting culture through the eyes of the observers—through their own interpretation of the culture. In Meet the Natives UK (2007), five tribesmen from Tanna in the South Pacific made the journey to Britain to observe and participate on various aspects of the English’ culture. With it, the tribesmen would constantly analyze and compare Britain’s culture [and technology] from their own thus

Medical Tests and the Ethical Implications Associated with It Case Study

Medical Tests and the Ethical Implications Associated with It - Case Study Example The researcher states that according to act utilitarianism it is our duty to act in a way that will produce better consequences. If Camilla decides to get herself tested, then this act of hers will definitely produce better results, mainly in the form of her protecting the future of her kids. Another important point which should be noted here is that, according to act utilitarianism, the correctness of an act should be judged by the consequence. Thus even if the act of forcing Camilla is wrong on the moral front, the consequence of it is not. If her parents force her to take the test, the good consequence that will come out of it in the form of Camilla taking extra care when planning her kids will nullify the negativity of the way she was forced to take the test. Thus we should determine right and wrong internally through autonomy and self-law. The individual himself should determine what he wants to do, which is what Camilla should do. According to Kantianism, Camilla should not go and get her tests done just because the consequences of it would be right. But she should get the tests done because it is right to do so. Kantianism is not consequential. Actions depend on a person’s motive and intentions. Camilla does not want to be labeled as a positive hemophilia carrier. She views this as a negative consequence. However, according to Kantianism, what she should focus on is why she wants to get the test done, not what would be the outcome. She should focus on the fact that if she gets the tests done right now, she will be better prepared to look after her kids later on in life. Thus for the safety and well being of her kids, she should go and get her tests done. However, she should do it only because she thinks its right and not because someone else is forcing her to do so.