Saturday, January 25, 2020
How does Criminology help our understanding of crime and criminals
How does Criminology help our understanding of crime and criminals Over the years many criminologists have been carried out research to find out how much Criminology has helped societys understanding of crime and criminals. Crime has been existent from the early days well before generations; however the punishments given to individuals and the way in which they are dealt with have changed over time. More greatly the definition of crime has changed and is continuing to change as new laws are constantly being brought into power . Criminology has been defined in a numerous of ways, some say criminology is the study of crime from a social and individual perspective. Looking at it from an educational approach Criminology has been defined as a social science, not only is it concerned with the causes and preventions of crime but the social impacts and reactions to it. As well as criminals themselves, others say that criminology is the study of the criminal justice and penal systems. Sutherland argued that the objective of Criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding the process if law, crime and treatment of prevention ( T. Newburn (2007 ). Other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, law, anthropology and many others has also helped and influenced criminology which has helped to gain a deeper understanding of the subject. More importantly many criminologists have had their own personal definitions of criminology. For instance, Edwin Sutherland defined criminology as the study of composing laws, breaking laws, and societys reaction to these particular laws being broken. T. Newburn (2007). Criminology attempts to explain why certain situations or events are considered a crime in certain societies compared to others. This can be weighed down to the differences in definitions between cultures and societies. In some cases, crimes considered in some countries may be legal in others. E.g. homosexuality relationships is legally accepted in the United Kingdom compared to countries such as Uganda and many other countries in Africa and Asia where extreme punishments such as death sentences are applicable for such relationships. Crime happens on a day to day basis with different crimes ranging from petty crimes such as not paying for a train ticket to extreme crimes such as murder and rape. Criminology has helped our understanding of crime and criminals by firstly helping us define moments in criminal justice that have changed the system all together. Major events in the criminal system have helped us to reinforce what the system is all about. Events such as the Damilola Taylor, Jamie Bulger and Stephen Lawrence murder are just a few of the law changing events that have taken place in the UK within the last 20 years. Not only were these cases so extreme but they made immediate changes to the criminal justice system that has helped us to gain a deeper understanding of crime and the way in which the police have choosing to deal with this. By allowing society to have an opinion on these events and allowing them to follow the case through via the media. New laws and legislations were enforced. Aspects of crime such as stop and search also increased dramatically as police tried to hunt down more and more youths. According to the British Journal of Criminology In 1999, the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry heavily criticized ethnic disparities in stop and search (disproportionality), triggering a national reform effort to make the tactic fairer and more effective. Analyses of searches under core powers using up to 12 years of annual data from 38 police force areas in Eng land indicate that aggregate disparities showed no improvement following the reforms. (Miller. J 2010) Criminology includes the study of a number of different theories to suggest why crimes are committed. Some of the most popular are: classical, positivist, and individual trait. In addition to these major theories, there are many more other theories widely discussed and debated by criminologists. The classical theory of criminology suggests that people commit crimes when they perceive the benefits outweigh the possible costs. Under this theory, the logical way to prevent crimes is to provide harsher punishments for crimes. If the punishments are harsher, then criminals will not perceive the benefits to outweigh the possible consequences. This helps us to understand why some offenders commit the crimes that they do . The positivist theory of criminology suggests that crime is created by both internal and external factors outside of an individuals control. These may include biological factors or social factors. Social factors leading to criminal behaviour include such things as poverty and education. In some ways, opening up educational opportunities and employment opportunities could prevent crime, according to this theory. On the other hand the individual trait theory explains that criminals differ from non criminals on a number of biological and psychological traits. These traits cause crime in interaction with the social environment. The understanding of sociology has helped us to understand criminology and how it helps our understanding of criminals. The functionalists approach of sociology states that society is like biological organism which has sub systems that are interrelated. They all have individual purposes of being existent and believe that society is based on a value consensus. The functionalists approach states that the values are learned through the family by primary socialisation which is where the parents teach the children what is expected and tolerated by society. The breakdown of this process is the lack of family socialisation meaning the children then grow up to be unusual members of society and go against what is expected from everyone. This helps us to understand why some people result to crime as the sociological approach stated that they were not socialised accordingly. The sociological approach also helps us to understand why crime and criminals are existent and how vital it to have so th at society is able to function. Cohen, a sociologist stated that in order for society to function accordingly crime most be present as it helps to prevent further crime and also ensure that the society is running normally without crime it will be clearly aware that there is a problem. Criminal psychology also helps us to understand to crime and criminals as it is a branch of the field of psychology which focuses on criminals. Different approaches try to help us understand crime , especially criminals and why it is they partake in the crime that they do. The biological approach in psychology states that it is chemicals, genetics, intelligence and psychic functions that leads them to commit crime. For example , the study of genetics and individual differences was of interest to psychologists, as seen in the first empirical studies of intelligence (e.g. Spearman 1972) . The approach also states that the individual was born as a criminal. Other explanations such as the social explanation sates the persons social status is what is causing them to commit crime they may have been isolated. A psychologist Freud, also used his psychodynamic approach to try and explain criminal behaviour. He stated that all humans have natural drives and urges repressed in the unconscious. Furthermore, all humans have criminal tendencies. Through the process of socialization, however, these tendencies are curbed by the development of inner controls that are learned through childhood experience. Freud hypothesized that the most common element that contributed to criminal behaviour was faulty identification by a child with her or his parents. This could be said to be linked to how sociology helps us understand criminals .The improperly socialized child may develop a personality disturbance that causes her or him to direct antisocial impulses inward or outward. The child who directs them outward becomes a criminal, and the child that directs them inward becomes a neurotic. The Cognitive Development Theory also helps us to understand crime and criminals. According to this approach, criminal behaviour results from the way in which people organise their thoughts about morality and the law. In 1958, Lawrence Kohlberg, a developmental psychologist, formulated a theory concerning the development of moral reasoning. He claimed that there were three levels of moral reasoning, each consisting of two stages. During middle childhood, children are at the first level of moral development. At this level, the pre conventional level, moral reasoning is based on obedience and avoiding punishment. The second level, the conventional level of moral development, is reached at the end of middle childhood. The moral reasoning of individuals at this level is based on the expectations that their family and significant others have for them. Kohlberg found that the transition to the third level, the post conventional level of moral development, usually occurs during early adulthood. At this level, individuals are able to go beyond social conventions. They value the laws of the social system; however, they are open to acting as agents of change to improve the existing law and order. People who do not progress through the stages may become arrested in their moral development, and consequently become delinquents and start to commit crimes . The approaches to criminology, help us to understand crime and criminals more deeply. The Classicists Approach believe that every human has the ability to make decisions and is responsible for their individual actions. Therefore, if he or she decides to take part on behaviour that breaks the law, he or she by default is to be punished. Punishment succeeds crime is what they say. They move on to say that having penalties in the criminal justice system will help keep a control on the number of crimes, such that people due to the fear of punishment will avoid committing crimes. Classicists believe that Crime occurs when the benefits outweigh the costs. When people pursue self-interest in the absence of effective punishments. Crime is a free-willed choice. This helps us to understand criminals and the realities of crime and why they do what they do. It also equips us with practical measures to enable us to contribute and make a difference in such areas of life. It gives society the broad er picture of crime happening. Another approach to criminology is the positivists approach which tries to explain crime and criminals. According to positivists, humans react the way they do because of certain internal and external influences. These influences sometimes cause the person to lose control and take extreme decisions he or she normally would not have taken. The states that Crime is caused or determined. Lombroso placed more emphasis on biological deficiencies, whereas later scholars would emphasize psychological and sociological factors. Through the use of Victimology and victims it is possible to understand crime and criminals. The 1985 United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power Offers a definition of victims: They state that victims refers to persons who, individually or collectively have suffered hurt of any shape or form this could be from physical harm, mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial of their fundamental rights . (Newburn T , 2007, p.342). Their second definition is that a person may be considered a victim, under this Declaration , regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended , prosecuted or convicted.'(Newburn T. (2007). An alternative approach developed by a criminologist Nils Christie (1986) put together characteristics in which he believed idealised a typical image of victims and offenders he named a few characteristics in which he believed that victims may have these consists of being weak these c h aracteristic are generally seen in females or the very old the sick or very young. The victim is blameless for what is happening and cannot control what is happening this helps us to understand criminals and why they choose the victims that they do. Overall crime is a socially constructed behaviour. It is what others in society see as deviating from the social norm which is then labelled as crime. This is mainly because they see this behaviour as not being acceptable by society and breaks the social norm which must therefore mean what the individual is doing is illegal. From researching and trying to find explanations it is clear that there are many ways in which criminology helps to explain crime and criminals. The different approaches and theories gives specific as well as biological and sociological explanations. It helps us to give explanations of why some criminals do what they do. as we move on in the criminal justice system there will be more and more aspects that let us know why crime and criminals exist. Criminology tries to explain why there are differences and why there are some crimes are nearly universal.
Friday, January 17, 2020
Gillette Fusion Essay
Recommendation In order to increase total sales and put Gillette Fusion on track to be a $1 billion business in the next few years, Gillette Fusion should launch a new advertising campaign and reduce cartridge package prices by 20% with the introduction of a onetime coupon. Explanation The media’s reaction to the â€Å"blockbuster†advertisement campaign highlights many of the campaign’s flaws. The campaign focused on the product features rather than its benefits. Due to the ad’s product focus, Gillette failed to communicate why the additional blades and elastomer handle coating improved the quality of consumer’s shave. The proposed advertising campaign would address these flaws and focus on the customer experience. In order to educate consumers, Gillette should employ a mass media campaign similar to Pepsi’s â€Å"Pepsi Challenge.†This campaign will include blindfolded individuals testing and comparing the Gillette Fusion with several other razors, and will be hosted by a celebrity who shares similar brand qualities as the Fusion. The celebrity will be young, sleek and innovative, like Ashton Kutcher or Dwayne Wade. †¢TV Advertisement: The television advertisements will include a short introduction by the celebrity and clips of customers who have taken the challenge describing why the Gillette Fusion is superior to its competitors. It should be featured during male-focused programing, like sporting events and adult comedies. †¢Print Advertisement: The print advertisement will feature a picture of the celebrity next to the razor and several quotes from individuals who have taken the challenge. It should be featured in men’s style magazines (GQ), music magazines (Rolling Stone) and sports magazines (ESPN, Sports Illustrated). †¢Radio Advertisement: The radio advertisement will begin with an introduction by the celebrity describing why he prefers the Gillette Fusion and then transition to reviews by those who have taken the challenge ( i.e. â€Å"The Gillette Fusion is incredible because †¦ If you don’t believe me, hear what people who have taken the challenge have to say for themselves †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). It should be featured during adult talk shows (Howard Stern Show) and sports programming. In order to encourage users to purchase the product, Gillette should offer a 20% discount on cartridges with the introduction of a one time coupon. Because 64% of men look at the price of the cartridge before purchasing the corresponding razor, introducing a 20% discount with a onetime coupon will encourage those consumers weary of the high cartridge prices to purchase the razor. Once purchasing and using the razor, it is likely that the consumer will notice a significant difference in the quality of shave, and be willing to pay a higher price for the superior product. This is supported by the fact that of the 9,000 men who tested the new razor, Fusion was preferred 2 to 1 over the competition. For the few who would usually not be willing to pay the higher price for the cartridges, they will likely continue to purchase the cartridges because of the switching costs associated with purchasing a new razor. The coupon should be displayed at points of purchase and in direct mail outs. The former can be achieved by providing collaborators with display allowance. Alternative Strategies Unlike the proposed strategy, each of the alternative strategies fails to simultaneously communicate the effectiveness of the product and encourage customers weary of the price to purchase the product. †¢Lowering the retail price of the razor – This will not encourage customers to purchase the product because (a) 64% of consumers look at the cartridge price before purchasing a razor and (b) a razor is a one-time cost to consumers, with a less elasticity of demand than cartridges. Also, without a new advertising campaign, they also will continue not to understand why the product is superior, and more expensive, than its competitors. †¢Reducing cartridge package prices by changing cartridge package size. Reducing the current four cartridge package with three cartridge packages is only effective if consumers fail to register the difference in package size because the price per cartridge will actually increase. Moreover, this strategy fails to educate consumers on why the product is superior, and more expensive, than its competitors.
Thursday, January 9, 2020
The Remote Past Tense in Italian
The remote past tense (passato remoto), although typically used to talk about history or in literature, is actually a simple tense and is formed by one word. In general, as we referenced, it refers to the historical past or to events that have happened in the distant past relative to the speaker. However, there are many places in the south of Italy that still use the remote past tense as the passato prossimo. For example, someone might use the past remote tense to talk about something that happened just two weeks ago. How to Form the Past Remote Tense Follow this format to form the passato remoto of regular verbs: For -are verbs, drop the infinitive ending and add one of these personal endings to the root: -ai, -asti, -à ², -ammo, -aste, -arono.For -ere verbs, drop the infinitive ending and add these personal endings to the root: -ei, -esti, -à ©, -emmo, -este, -erono. Note that many regular -ere verbs have an alternative form in the first person singular, third person singular, and third person plural forms.For -ire verbs, drop the infinitive ending and add these personal endings to the root: -ii, -isti, -à , -immo, -iste, -irono. Here are a few examples of how the remote past is used in Italian: Dante si rifugià ² a Ravenna. - Dante took refuge in Ravenna.Petrarca morà ¬ nel 1374. - Petrarca died in 1374.Michelangelo nacque nel 1475. - Michelangelo was born in 1475. The table below provides examples of three regular Italian verbs (one of each class) conjugated in the remote past tense. Conjugating Italian Verbs in the Remote Past Tense PARLARE RICEVERE CAPIRE io parlai ricevei (ricevetti) capii tu parlasti ricevesti capisti lui, lei, Lei parl ricev (ricevette) cap noi parlammo ricevemmo capimmo voi parlaste riceveste capiste loro, Loro parlarono riceverono (ricevettero) capirono Irregular Verbs in the Past Remote Tense Like with most verbs in Italian, there are plenty of irregular ones in the past remote tense. Here are five common verbs. 1) Essere – To be fui                   fummo fosti                foste fu                    furono  Albert Einstein fu un uomo di grande saggezza. – Albert Einstein was a man of great wisdom.  â€Å"Fatti non foste per viver come bruti†¦Ã¢â‚¬ - â€Å"Consider your origins: You were not born to live like brutes. [Dante, La Divina Commedia, canto XXVI) 2) Avere – To have ebbi               avemmo avesti            aveste ebbe              ebbero  Ebbero cosà ¬ tanta fortuna da vincere persino il primo premio della lotteria nazionale! - They had such luck that they also won the first prize of the National Lottery!  Giulia ebbe il coraggio di donare un rene a sua sorella. - Giulia had the courage to donate a kidney to her sister. 3) Fare – To do/make feci                 facemmo facesti           faceste fece               fecero  Con pochi soldi fecero un matrimonio bellissimo. – They set up a beautiful wedding with little money.  Facemmo tutto il possibile per riportare alla luce l’affresco di Raffaello. - We did everything possible to bring to light Raffaello’s fresco. 4) Stare – To stay/to be stetti              stemmo stesti             steste stette             stettero  Mi ricordo che stetti in silenzio tutta la festa. Ero troppo timida! - I remember I spent the whole party without saying a word. I was too shy!  I feriti, dopo la scoperta della penicillina nel 1937, stettero subito meglio. - The wounded felt immediately better after the discovery of penicillin in 1937. 5) Dire – To say dissi              dicemmo dicesti           diceste disse             dissero  Cimabue disse: â€Å"L’allievo ha superato il maestro.†– Cimabue said: â€Å"The pupil has surpassed the teacher.† Romeo e Giulietta si dissero parole d’amore che sono arrivate fino ai nostri tempi! - Romeo and Juliet said words of love to each other that have persisted until the present!
Wednesday, January 1, 2020
Definition and Examples of Tense Shifts in English
In English grammar, tense shift refers to the change from one verb tense to another (usually from past to present, or vice versa) within a sentence or paragraph. A writer may temporarily shift from past tense to present tense in order to enhance the vividness of a narrative account. In prescriptive grammar, writers are cautioned to avoid unnecessary shifts in tense. Unmotivated shifts between present and past may obscure meaning and confuse readers. Examples and Observations The bridge was still open then, and I was up there one day mowing the grass alongside the road, just minding my own business, when I see something moving out of the corner of my eye. â€â€C.J. Fisher, The Legend of Diadamia. AuthorHouse, 2005Staring rigidly up at it, Justin is listening to her joyous protestations at his right side. Dizzy from travel, laden with last-minute hand luggage, the two of them have minutes earlier arrived here from London for the first time. â€â€John le Carrà ©, The Constant Gardener. Hodder Stoughton, 2001 Gliding From One Tense to Another It is possible to glide from one tense to another in the course of one sentence, but the key to doing it is always to be in control, to know what you are doing, what effect you are hoping to achieve. In The Literary Review (February 2006), Francis King comments with admiration on how D.J. Taylor in his novel Kept frequently shifts gears from past tense to present to tauten a scene. And in an essay Glitches (Granta 27), John Gregory Dunne writes: Off the road there was what appeared to be a reviewing stand, and I sat there for a few moments, taking in the museum and the cold blue Sunday sky, taking stock, what to do, what to do next, Id really hate to cancel dinner tonight . . . Im breathing normally now, its OK A-OK, I wont even tell my wife, nor Tim, especially not Tim, I feel fit as a fiddle now. He wasnt though, but thats another story, told by his wife, Joan Didion, in The Year of Magical Thinking. Just notice the tense shift. â€â€Carmel Bird, Writing The Story Of Your Life. HarperCollins, 2007 The Effect of Tense Shift in A Tale of Two Cities A Tale of Two Cities [by Charles Dickens] has a tense shift at a great moment of the story. After the trial and after Sydney Carton has taken the place of Charles Darnay in jail, the drugged Darnay and his family are fleeing in the stagecoach from Paris. Suddenly we find that the story is in the present tense. This adds vividness and excitement and here marks a peak which encodes part of the notional structure denouement of the story. â€â€Robert E. Longacre, The Grammar of Discourse, 2nd ed. Plenum Press, 1996 Legitimate Tense Shifts Sometimes writers shift from past to present tense when telling a story to add vividness to the events. This legitimate tense shift is a literary device called the historical present. It is familiar to readers of epic poetry, but people also use it when relating everyday anecdotes: I was walking down Delancey Street the other day when a guy comes up to me and asks me for the time. â€â€(The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Houghton Mifflin, 2005) Usage Tips: Avoiding Needless Tense Shifts What is an example of an unmotivated shift in tense in writing? One example is starting a story in past tense and suddenly shifting into present tense:Last week I was walking along a street when this man walks up to me and says . . .We do this in speech all the time, but in formal writing its considered to be an error. â€â€Edward L. Smith and Stephen A. Bernhardt, Writing At Work: Professional Writing Skills for People on the Job. NTC Publishing, 1997)Tense places the action of the verb in time: Today I go. Yesterday I went. Tomorrow I will go. Different verbs in a sentence or paragraph may logically use different tenses to reflect actions at different times.We will play tennis before we eat breakfast but after we have had our coffee.The tense you select to describe most of the actions in your paper is called the governing tense. Once you establish it, do not use another tense without a good reason. . . .The literary present tense is used to describe literature or art. If you use it, do so consistently. â€â€Toby Fulwiler and Alan R. Hayakawa, The Blair Handbook. Prentice Hall, 2003It is common practice to analyze literary works in present tense. Thus, you would write, Pearl is a difficult child rather than Pearl was a difficult child in an analysis of Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter. If you are quoting a critic who has used a past tense verb in a particular sentence, you may change the tense of the critics verb by typing the tense you wish to use in square brackets. This bracketed change of tense avoids an awkward verb tense shift in your text.As a general rule of thumb, however, avoid changing the tense of verbs in the text of a literary work you are analyzing. â€â€Linda Smoak Schwartz, The Wadsworth Guide to MLA Documentation, 2nd ed. Wadsworth, 2011
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